Fusion of faith with art

Overall Perspective

Pushti Marg is a sect of Sanatan Dharma and is based on its basic shastras. At the core of any sect is the philosophy of its founder, and this is expressed in a system of beliefs. This system of beliefs is intangible and abstract and eventually gives birth to organized tangible expressions in rituals and customs. Therefore, to understand the influence of Pushti Marg on Indian paintings and art we must first delve into its core, that is Vallabhacharya’s philosophy and theology of Krishna; secondly, we must know how his system of beliefs were expressed as organized religion and rituals that resulted in the production of sacred objects, like paintings, pichvais (shrine textiles), and various arts; and lastly, we must understand its influence on the social and cultural aspects that carried these traditions forward.

Vallabhacharya formally established Pushti Marg by enshrining the image of Shrinathji on Mount Govardhan, near Gokul, Vraj, in 1493 CE, initiating followers into his fold. His philosophy of Shuddhadvaita; Subhodini, his commentary on Shrimad Bhagavad Puran, combined with his theology of Krishna; and further, the doctrine of having a personal shrine of Krishna svarup at home, made a deep impact on various Indian schools of painting from the early 16th century. His strong inclination towards Rasa Panchadhayi as expressed in Subhodini, and his endearingly sweet description of Krishna in Madhurashtakam inspired his two sons, Gopinathji and Vithalnathji to design an aesthetically and sensually intense mode of worship, which was later carried forward by Vithalnathji’s descendants. Thereby, devotees indulged in liturgy that delighted the soul with lilas of Krishna in Vrindavan reenacted at home as an integral part of seva, particularly the fleeting moments of tender and esoteric love of the gopis, that eventually became a metaphor of the human quest for the Ultimate Reality.

Thereby, the influence on Indian paintings has been affected through three channels: philosophical and theological, religious and ritual, and social and cultural.

Inspiring Expressions of Shri Vallabhacharya’s Philosophy

Evolution of Vallabhacharya’s Philosophy

The visionary and spiritual leader, Shri Vallabhacharya’s philosophy of Shuddhadvaita is a different approach to reality from the philosophies of Shankara’s Mayavada and Ramanujacharya’s Vishistadvaita. Adi Shankara’s philosophy of Advaita and Mayavada, laid emphasis on nirguna or formless Brahman. The term nirguna recognizes the non-material attributes of Brahman.

The Brahma Sutra states that the essential aspects of the Brahman are creation, preservation and eventual dissolution of the universe. Brahman is the source and cause of the universe, which means, it bridges the perceived chasm between singularity and duality. The universe has innumerable attributes and, in turn, this implies that the Brahman as cause, and universe as effect, represent two states of the same aspect, identifiable as Purusha and Prakriti. The Upanishads deny the phenomenal attributes of Brahman (phenomenal attributes here means those that can be perceived by the senses) but not the transcendental ones. Nirguna does not mean that Brahman or Bhagavan is devoid of all qualities. What it means is that Bhagavan is completely free from limitations of finite existence. Brahman is beyond prakriti, and His attributes are transcendental and sublime. In short, the term nirguna lays emphasis on the negation of material qualities, whereas saguna stresses on affirmation of transcendental spiritual qualities. ‘Nirguna Brahman also means a manifestation of Bhagavan in which His qualities remain imperceptible and unmanifest.’

Shrimad Bhagavad Puran propagated devotion to Krishna, integrating the Advaita, (pure monism) philosophy of Shankara and Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism) of Ramanuja and Dvaita (dualism) philosophy of Madhvacharya. It states that although there is only one Tattva or Ultimate Reality known as Brahman, this indivisible tattva manifests in three different ways to the devotees according to their intellectual capacities. These different forms of the tattva are called the indeterminate truth—Brahman that can be known only by Jnana yogis, (path of knowledge); the partially determinate—Paramatma that can be known by Ashtanga yogis, (path of karma); and the fully determinate—Bhagavan, who can be known by Bhakti yogis, (path of bhakti).

Bharat Muni proposed the theory of rasa and various bhavas in his Natyashastra, which was later elaborated by Abhinavagupta who explicated rasa as the Ananda of Brahman. This paved the way for accepting the saguna, transcendental attributes of Brahman and acceptance of saguna bhakti, and bhava. The first to accept the saguna form of Brahman was Ramanujacharya. His philosophy of Vishistadvaita celebrated the veneration of Vishnu’s form through devotion. Saint Jnaneshvara in Maharashtra popularized the worship of Vithala, a form of Vishnu, through devotional singing. The next philosopher who improvised on this concept was Vallabhacharya, (also called Vallabha by his devotees) who chose shringara bhakti, an integral aspect of saguna bhakti celebrating the madhurya bhava or the esoteric love of the gopis.

Nuances of Shuddhadvaita

Vallabha’s philosophy of Shuddhadvaita stated that everything that is created by the Supreme Reality is real, Brahman permeates in every aspect (ansha) of reality, and the soul (atma) is part and parcel of Parmatma; there is no difference or dualism. Supreme Reality or Brahman exists in pure form both as creator and created. It is because of Vallabha’s proposal of not distinguishing between the sacred/mundane dichotomy that his philosophy is known as non-dualism or Shuddhadvaita. His philosophy opened the doors to sensual experience, as the body was identified as the seat of atman, and the senses as the windows that could lead the self to the experience of the divine. His ideology of nondualism and theology of Krishna, experienced through shringara and madhurya rasa as expressed in Subhodini, opened to his followers a panorama of sensual, visual and affective perceptual experiences, introducing a new visual culture.

The shringara and madhurya rasa of Krishna and the gopis is revered and glorified in various art forms and mediums, including poetry and literature throughout India. Inspired by the concept of bhakti poets, like Jayadeva (Gita Govinda), the Ashtachap poets of Pushti Marg, Rasamanjari by Bhanudatta, Rasikapriya by Keshavdas and Ritikal poets, eulogized the shringara bhakti. The bhakti movement was further applauded by saints like Vallabhacharya, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Keshavadas and others. Inspired by the lyrics of the poetry, artists painted the romance of Krishna and the gopikas with the same quality of sensuous elegance as Indian sculptures, for patrons and devotees to embellish their personal spaces and shrines. The bhakti era, starting from the eighth century in south India and spreading to north India in later centuries, reverberated with the madhurya rasa of Krishna bhakti. Proponents of Bhakti Marg asserted that it was important to embrace the saguna Krishna to reach the nirguna Brahman, the journey from the form to the formless.

Shri Vallabhacharya’s Theology of Krishna as Explained in Subhodini

The 10th canto of Shrimad Bhagavad Puran which portrays Krishna lilas became the focal point of attention. Vallabhacharya’s commentary, Subhodini, on the Shrimad Bhagavad Puran and later, Vithalnathji’s (Vithala’s) interpolations on the commentary, inspired devotees to adopt and adhere to an aesthetically and emotionally intense mode of worship of Krishna that the sect developed over the centuries, in the process creating a plethora of arts for worship to create the ‘desired rasa’ in their personal shrines.

Rasa is essentially a deep and intense aesthetic experience; the experience of rasa is transcendental and rooted in the spiritual plane. Rasa is an integral aspect of religious ritual and everything that it signifies from the standpoint of bhakti yoga. The Upanishads regard Brahman to be the fountainhead of rasa and the experience of rasa is likened to realization of Brahman. In short, rasa is a complex and sublime experiential concept. The higher form of Ananda is Brahmananda, which the Taittiriya Upanishad, (Brahmananda Valli, 2.4.1) says is beyond description. But even beyond Brahmananda is Bhaktyananda which the Taittiriya Upanishad describes in a verse where Bhagavan is called Rasa tattva and a bhakta who realizes or attains Bhagavan, experiences Bhaktyananda Raso vai sah. Vallabha, and later Vithala, developed the theology of Krishna based on this Rasa experience of Krishna. This philosophy is also based on the aesthetic theory of Bharat Muni.

In the beginning of the fifth chapter of Raas Panch Adyayi of Subhodini (Bhagavad Puran, Canto 10, Adhyayi 30) Vallabha explains that Brahman’s Ananda is the cause of creation.

According to the Bhagavad Puran, Krishna incarnated on earth as Poorna avatar, to fulfill the wishes of His devotees and manifest His lilas. Krishna is the fountainhead of rasas, so His lilas are resplendent with rasa. Krishna is filled with rasa, Ananda, and He bestows this Ananda in the gopis through kama.

(Excerpted with permission from Anita Bharat Shah’s Colours of Devotion; published by Niyogi Books)